Applied research
Our research division was established by the founder and former Chairman of the APWG, Professor Ray Jansen. Presently, Dr Sean Heighton (APWG board member) manages our organisation's Science and Research Portfolio.
We are leaders in the scientific research of African pangolin ecology, parasites, threats and use in traditional cultural belief systems. We have co-authored 12 scientific journal articles investigating the ecology, genetics, threats and traditional uses of pangolins in southern and West Africa, have postgraduate students in the field and collaborate with a range of other scientific institutions around the world.
We have co-authored the revision of the conservation status of the Temminck’s ground pangolin in South Africa (published in 2016) and are currently busy with the conservation status evaluation of the Temminck’s ground pangolin and white-bellied tree pangolin for the IUCN red list species evaluation to be published in 2019.
Effective pangolin conservation is not only related to the species but also to the communities of people that share this illusive and understudied animal’s habitat. As such, it is critically important to investigate the cultural belief systems of these animals within the often very rural and impoverished African communities. Often pangolins are harvested for cultural or traditional beliefs, used as some form of remedy and simply as a source of protein in the bush meat trade.
We pride ourselves in leading this form of research in Africa.
Current students
Francois Meyer
Francois has a BSc in Conservation Ecology from the University of Stellenbosch. In 2020 Francois submitted his MSc dissertation entitled ‘Survival and distribution of Temminck’s ground pangolin retrieved from the illegal wildlife trade in South Africa’. This ground-breaking study, completed at the University of Venda, investigated the distribution and survival of Temminck’s pangolins that were treated and released again following their retrieval out of the illegal wildlife trade. Important findings were the large distances this bipedal species of pangolin can travel, once released, and how important a facilitated gentle release is to their survival. Post-release monitoring is an important component of a successful reintroduction back into the wild.
The research will aid in establishing new release protocols, to maximise the survival of these endangered animals. This project was a first of its kind globally, for any of the eight species of pangolin.
Jessie Berndt
A collaboration between Ceva Wildlife Research Fund (CWRF) and the APWG, both committed to preserving biodiversity with a main objective focus on applied research projects, has resulted in the funding of PhD candidate Jessie Berndt. This PhD research is being conducted under the auspices of the University of Pretoria and supervised by Professor Andrew Mckechnie and Professor Ray Jansen.
The pangolins in the study form part of the world first reintroduction of Temminck’s pangolin into an area where they were locally extinct for four decades. This project is the brainchild of the APWG together with andBeyondPhinda and is taking place on the Munyawana Conservancy and the andBeyond Phinda Private Game Reserve. This study will answer many questions and provide a deeper understanding of pangolin behaviour. In the future, it could serve as a template for releases of retrieved pangolins into protected areas.
Published papers
Applied scientific research in an integral and vitally important component of pangolin conservation. Research undertaken throughout Africa on the four pangolin species if often undertaken by postgraduate students enrolled for masters and doctoral degrees through various Universities and supervised by one of the African Pangolin Working Group board members. The findings of this research are published in international scientific journals and made available to the judiciary, nature conservation authorities and the scientific community to implement conservation management strategies for Africa’s pangolins through each species range. The application of scientific research means that our efforts are backed by research and that our future conservation efforts are guided by objective scientific output.
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Temminck’s ground pangolin (Smutsia temminckii) is one of four species of pangolin, endemic to Africa. Two of the African pangolin species are listed as vulnerable and two are listed as endangered on the International Union for Conservation of Nature Red List of Threatened Species due to their ongoing exploitation for traditional medicine and bushmeat. In this study, we developed 30 species-specific short-tandem repeats (STRs) in Temminck’s ground pangolin using next-generation sequencing. The markers were also optimized for crossamplification in other African species. All the markers amplified successfully in Temminck’s ground pangolin with allelic polymorphisms observed in 87% of the markers in giant pangolin (S. gigantea) whereas 60% of the markers were amplified polymorphic loci in both whitebellied pangolin (Phataginus tricuspis) and black-bellied pangolin (P. tetradactyla). Analysis of diversity estimates showed moderate levels of variability in Temminck’s ground pangolin (Na = 5; Ho = 0.559), giant pangolin (Na = 4.909; Ho = 0.514) and white-bellied pangolin (Na = 2.686; Ho = 0.541) with lower values being observed in black-bellied pangolin (Na = 3; Ho = 0.242). This study provides data of the first available STR markers which was amplified in all four African pangolin species that can now be used in conservation genetic and evolutionary aspects of population histories.
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Pangolins are elusive and threatened mammals, considered the most widely traded mammals on Earth supplying local African and Asian traditional medicine markets. African pangolins are sourced as bushmeat and perceived to cure diverse ailments when body parts are used in traditional medicine practices. Currently, there is no documentation on cultural uses of Temminck’s ground pangolin throughout this mammal’s distribution range in South Africa. We interviewed 344 community members from seven indigenous tribal communities in four provinces overlapping with the distribution of Smutsia temminckii in South Africa; only 191 respondents (55.5%) had any knowledge of the species, its cultural and/or medicinal uses. Pangolin is highly sought after and held in high regard where this mammal’s body parts, particularly scales, blood and fat, are utilized traditionally for treating various physical ailments and spiritual remedies in rural South African communities. This utilization undoubtedly has a significant impact on the population of this threatened species.
Background: This study used next generation sequencing to generate the mitogenomes of four African pangolin species; Temminck’s ground pangolin (Smutsia temminckii), giant ground pangolin (S. gigantea), white-bellied pangolin (Phataginus tricuspis) and black-bellied pangolin (P. tetradactyla).
Results: The results indicate that the mitogenomes of the African pangolins are 16,558 bp for S. temminckii, 16,540 bp for S. gigantea, 16,649 bp for P. tetradactyla and 16,565 bp for P. tricuspis. Phylogenetic comparisons of the African pangolins indicated two lineages with high posterior probabilities providing evidence to support the classification of two genera; Smutsia and Phataginus. The total GC content between African pangolins was observed to be similar between species (36.5% – 37.3%). The most frequent codon was found to be A or C at the 3rd codon position. Significant variations in GC-content and codon usage were observed for several regions between African and Asian pangolin species which may be attributed to mutation pressure and/or natural selection. Lastly, a total of two insertions of 80 bp and 28 bp in size respectively was observed in the control region of the black-bellied pangolin which were absent in the other African pangolin species.
Conclusions: The current study presents reference mitogenomes of all four African pangolin species and thus expands on the current set of reference genomes available for six of the eight extant pangolin species globally and represents the first phylogenetic analysis with six pangolin species using full mitochondrial genomes. Knowledge of full mitochondrial DNA genomes will assist in providing a better understanding on the evolution of pangolins which will be essential for conservation genetic studies.
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Pangolins (Pholidota: Manidae) are frequently hunted as a source of bushmeat in Ghana. However, no information exists with regards to the level of trade of pangolins outside of major bushmeat market surveys in Ghana. The aim of this study was to determine the level of trade among other stakeholders in the bushmeat commodity chain for pangolins in Ghana. Data were collected from 153 stakeholders using semi-structured interviews and direct observation between September 2013 and January 2014. A total of 341 pangolins were recorded to have been traded in this study period. The white-bellied pangolin (Phataginus tricuspis) represented 82 % and the black-bellied pangolin (Phataginus tetradactyla) 18 % of the observed pangolins traded by the stakeholders. Chopbar operators accounted for the highest retailer sales to consumers. The number of pangolins traded was negatively correlated to the distance between settlements and protected forest regions. The levels of pangolin trade were previously underestimated in Ghana as the pangolin bushmeat commodity chain does not form the supply chain to the major bushmeat markets where most surveys were undertaken. The Wildlife Conservation Act of 1971 (LI 685) that prohibits the hunting of pangolins can be regarded as ineffective and not serving as a deterrent to poaching.
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Non-invasive sampling aims to obtain suitable samples without causing harm to the study organism, thus making it a more preferred sampling technique. Molecular methods have advanced in such a way that quality DNA can be obtained from less invasive mammal samples. Various PCR enhancing techniques have also been developed to aid in amplification of low quality DNA samples, to produce reliable results that can be used to monitor populations and species or for forensic applications. Temminck’s ground pangolin is one of the few mammals to be covered in scales. In this study, we attempt to identify the most appropriate DNA isolation and PCR methods as well as determine whether PCR additives could be used to improve isolation of DNA and downstream amplification of mitochondrial DNA, from scale samples collected from these pangolins. In this study, it was determined that several different methods are required in order to successfully amplify DNA, and a decision tree rather than a single method should be followed.
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The escalating growth in illegal wildlife trade and anthropogenic habitat changes threaten the survival of pangolin species worldwide. All eight extant species have experienced drastic population size reductions globally with a high extinction risk in Asia. Consequently, forensic services have become critical for law enforcement, with a need for standardised and validated genetic methods for reliable identifications. The seizure of three tonnes of pangolin scales, believed to have originated from Africa, by Hong Kong Customs Authorities provided an opportunity for the application of DNA barcoding in identifying scales. Three mitochondrial DNA gene regions (COI, Cyt b, and D-loop) were amplified for a subsample of the confiscated material and compared with taxonomically verified references. All four African species were recovered as monophyletic with high interspecific uncorrected p-distance estimates (0.048–0.188) among genes. However, only three of four African species (Phataginus tricuspis, Phataginus tetradactyla, and Smutsia gigantea, originating from West and Central Africa) and one of four Asian species (Manis javanica from Southeast Asia) were identified among scales. Although the assignment of unknown scales to specific species was reliable, additional genetic tools and representative reference material are required to determine geographic origins of confiscated pangolin specimens.
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Traditional medicine has been practised in Ghana for centuries with the majority of Ghanaiansstill patronising the services of traditional healers. Throughout Africa a large number of people use pangolins as a source of traditional medicine, however, there is a dearth of information on the use of animals in folk medicine in Ghana, in particular the use of pangolins. The aim of this study was to determine the prevalent use of pangolins and the level of knowledge of pangolin use among traditional healers in Ghana for the treatment of human ailments. Data was gathered from 48 traditional healers using semi-structured interviews on the traditional medicinal use of pangolin body parts in the Kumasi metropolis of Ghana. The cultural importance index, relative frequency of citation, informant agreement ratio and use agreement values were calculated to ascertain the most culturally important pangolin body part as well as the level of knowledge dissemination among traditional healers with regards pangolin body parts. Our study revealed that 13 body parts of pangolins are used to treat various medicinal ailments. Pangolin scales and bones were the most prevalent prescribed body parts and indicated the highest cultural significance among traditional healing practices primarily for the treatment of spiritual protection, rheumatism, financial rituals and convulsions. Despite being classified under Schedule 1 of Ghana’s Wildlife Conservation Act of 1971 (LI 685), that prohibits anyone from hunting or being in possession of a pangolin, our results indicated that the use of pangolins for traditional medicinal purposes is widespread among traditional healers in Ghana. A study on the population status and ecology of the three species of African pangolins occurring in Ghana is urgently required in order to determine the impact this harvest for traditional medical purposes has on their respective populations as current levels appear to be unmonitored and unsustainable.
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The diet of Temminck’s ground pangolin Smutsia temminckii (hereafter, pangolin) has thus far been studied only in mesic savannahs. We provide arid-zone dietary data for this species based on direct observations, and compare these to available prey species assemblages. We also report stable carbon and nitrogen isotope enrichment values for liver and scales obtained from pangolin carcasses compared to the diet. Pangolins were recorded consuming four ant (Anoplolepis steingroeveri, Camponotus fulvopilosus, two Crematogaster spp.) and one termite (Trinervitermes trinervoides) species, which represent 7.5 and 25% of the available ant and termite species respectively. The stable isotope data corroborate the direct observations and confirm that pangolins display a high degree of prey selectivity, however stable isotopes alone were not able to infer the diet of pangolins as a number of non-prey species had similar isotopic values to prey species. Direct observations suggest that purported non-prey species are not consumed, possibly because they have chemical or mechanical defenses or gallery structures that make them unsuitable as prey. Liver was enriched by 3.8 1.2& (mean SD) and 2.5 1.4& for d15N and d13C respectively, relative to the mean d15N and d13C values of the prey species, and scales were enriched by 2.9 1.0& and 5.3 1.8& respectively. We observed no seasonal variation or age or sex-related differences in diet, either from direct observations or isotope data. These results support previous findings that pangolins have further specialized within an already unusual mammalian dietary niche.
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Background: Pangolins (Manidae) have long been used for traditional medicinal purposes in most parts of sub-Saharan Africa. However, very little is known about the extent of this use, the body parts that are used and the ailments these practices are attempting to cure or alleviate. Pangolin body parts are used extensively and frequently by traditional medical practitioners in Sierra Leone.
Methods: A total of 63 traditional medical practitioners consented and were interviewed using semi-structured questionnaires on the traditional medicinal use of pangolin body parts. The use value, informant agreement ratio and use agreement value for each pangolin part was calculated to ascertain the most sought after body part, the level of knowledge dissemination among traditional medical practitioners about body parts and the most culturally significant body part.
Results: It was found that 22 pangolin parts are used to treat various ailments and conditions under 17 international categories of diseases. The highest use value was recorded for scales while eyes had the highest level of consensus among the traditional medical practitioners. The highest use value and informant agreement ratio for scales were recorded for spiritual ailments. Scales were the most culturally significant body part according to the use agreement value.
Conclusion: This study indicates a high importance value for pangolins as part of these communities’ spiritual, cultural and medicinal beliefs. However, the numbers of individuals harvested from the wild remains unknown and unregulated even though pangolins have been listed under Schedule 2 of the Wildlife Conservation Act, 1972, of Sierra Leone, which prohibits any person from hunting or being in possession of pangolins. It is likely that this unregulated harvesting and poaching of this threatened species, for medicinal purposes, is unsustainable and there is an urgent need to determine pangolin population abundance within this region to ensure their sustainable harvesting for cultural use and conservation.
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Temmincki’s ground pangolin is primarily a nocturnal mammal belonging to the order Pholidota. The body is covered in hard overlapping scales and these animals find refuge in burrows, feeding only on termites and ants. In this study, the whole mtDNA of Temmincki’s ground pangolin was sequenced and the phylogenetic position of Pholidota determined within Eutheria, using whole mtDNA sequences from various representative species. The results indicate that the whole mtDNA of Temmincki’s ground pangolin is 16,559 bp long and shared some similarities with the whole mtDNA of the back-bellied tree pangolin and the Chinese pangolin. Phylogenetic analysis indicate that the order Pholidota is closely related and share a recent common ancestor with the order Carnivora rather thanwith the ant/insect eating order Xenarthra and the group Afrotheria. A time measured phylogeny of Pholidota estimated a split from Carnivora at around 87mya, followed by a split of the African pangolins from their Asian counterparts such as the Chinese pangolin at around 47 mya. This suggests a Laurasian origin and convergent evolution of the Pholidota with respect to Xenarthra and Afrotheria.
Keywords: Mitochondrial DNA; Temminck’s ground pangolin; Smutsia temminckii; Phylogeny
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All previous behavioural studies of Temminck’s ground pangolins (Smutsia temminckii) have focused on populations in mesic regions. We examined home range size, activity periods, habitat selectivity and refuge site selection of 13 individuals over three years in the Kalahari Desert of South Africa, near the western edge of the species’ range. Kernel home ranges of adults averaged 6.5 ± 5.9 km², while juveniles had average home ranges of 6.1 ± 4.0 km². Reliable prediction of 95% of the Kernel home range required 88 ± 67.7 tracking days. No significant habitat selectivity was observed. Earthen burrows were the most frequently used refuge type. The time at which activity commenced varied seasonally as well as among individuals, with an increase in diurnal activity during winter. Young pangolins also displayed more diurnal activity compared to adults. Individuals spent 5.7 ± 2.0 hours per 24-hour cycle outside of refuges, with no significant seasonal variation. Juvenile dispersal peaked during mid-summer, with individuals travelling up to 49 km from their natal areas. We estimate a breeding density of 0.16 individuals/km2 and a total density of 0.31 individuals/km2 for our study area. Our data suggest that activity patterns, movements and refuge selection is similar across the species’ southern African range, but that densities may be higher in the Kalahari compared to populations in more mesic eastern areas.
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Throughout its range, Temminck’s ground pangolin, Smutsia temminckii, is becoming increasingly threatened, predominantly as a result of anthropogenic pressures. This species is currently listed as Vulnerable in South Africa and Least Concern globally, although many assessment criteria are data deficient and thus hamper an accurate assessment of its actual status. Current knowledge of the threats faced by Temminck’s ground pangolin largely stem from a handful of ecological studies and ad hoc observations. Here we synthesize data on the known threats faced by this species in southern Africa and highlight a number of new threats not previously recognized. The main threats faced by this species include electrocution on electrified fences, the traditional medicine (muthi ) trade, habitat loss, road mortalities, capture in gin traps, and potentially poisoning. Electrocutions arguably pose the greatest threat and mortality rates may be as high as one individual per 11 km of electrified fence per year. However, the magnitude of the threat posed by the muthi trade has not yet been quantified. Most southern African countries have adequate legislation protecting this species, although implementation is often lacking and in some instances the imposed penalties are unlikely to be a deterrent. We propose mitigating actions for many of the identified threats, although further research into the efficacy of these actions, and the development of additional mitigating procedures, is required.
Key words: Smutsia temminckii, Manis temminckii, electrocutions, traditional medicine, international trade, legislation, mitigation.
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Other publications
The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species is a database that assesses the risk of extinction for animals, fungi, and plants. In this assessment, the Temminck’s pangolin Smutsia temminckii) is reported as “vulnerable”.
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This is a chapter from a book that was created under a team of editors with more than 20 years collective experience in pangolin conservation. The book includes accounts of the species’ evolution, morphology, and systematics. It discusses the role of pangolins in historically symbolic, mythological, and ritualistic practices across Africa, Asia, and Europe, as well as contemporary practices including international trafficking. Chapters in the latter portion of this book focus on conservation solutions, including law enforcement and international policy, behaviour change, local community engagement, ex situ conservation, tourism, and other interventions needed to secure the future of the species.
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This is a chapter from a book that was created under a team of editors with more than 20 years collective experience in pangolin conservation. The book includes accounts of the species’ evolution, morphology, and systematics. It discusses the role of pangolins in historically symbolic, mythological, and ritualistic practices across Africa, Asia, and Europe, as well as contemporary practices including international trafficking. Chapters in the latter portion of this book focus on conservation solutions, including law enforcement and international policy, behaviour change, local community engagement, ex situ conservation, tourism, and other interventions needed to secure the future of the species.
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PURCHASE FULL PUBLICATION
This is a chapter from a book that was created under a team of editors with more than 20 years collective experience in pangolin conservation. The book includes accounts of the species’ evolution, morphology, and systematics. It discusses the role of pangolins in historically symbolic, mythological, and ritualistic practices across Africa, Asia, and Europe, as well as contemporary practices including international trafficking. Chapters in the latter portion of this book focus on conservation solutions, including law enforcement and international policy, behaviour change, local community engagement, ex situ conservation, tourism, and other interventions needed to secure the future of the species.
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PURCHASE FULL PUBLICATION
This is a chapter from a book that was created under a team of editors with more than 20 years collective experience in pangolin conservation. The book includes accounts of the species’ evolution, morphology, and systematics. It discusses the role of pangolins in historically symbolic, mythological, and ritualistic practices across Africa, Asia, and Europe, as well as contemporary practices including international trafficking. Chapters in the latter portion of this book focus on conservation solutions, including law enforcement and international policy, behaviour change, local community engagement, ex situ conservation, tourism, and other interventions needed to secure the future of the species.
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Dissertations and theses
The following are completed studies from past students that were sponsored and / or collaborated with the APWG in their research
Ground pangolins Smutsia temminckii are inconspicuous, mainly nocturnal mammals that occur at low population densities. As a result, there is scant information available on the ecology and physiology of this species. To date the handful of studies focussing on this species were centred in the mesic eastern regions of its range, with no attention being given to ecological and biological traits in arid environments. To address these data shortfalls, a study was undertaken in the Kalahari Desert in north-western South Africa. Very High Frequency (VHF) transmitters or Global Positioning System (GPS) loggers were fitted to 16 ground pangolins and their ecology and physiology studied over a period of three years.
Throughout its range the ground pangolin is increasingly endangered, predominantly due to anthropogenic threats. Previous studies have identified some threats facing this species, but very few of these studies included quantitative data as to the extent of these threats. The present study suggests that the main threats to ground pangolins in southern Africa are electrocution on electrified fences, the traditional medicine trade, habitat loss, road mortalities and capture in gin traps. Although accidental poisoning has previously been viewed as a threat, a review of the available literature suggests that this is not the case and that these views stemmed from two isolated incidents of captive animals. Electrocutions pose the greatest threat to ground pangolins, with mortality rates of one pangolin per 11 km of electrified fence per year recorded during this study.
Home range sizes of this arid-zone population are comparable to the home range sizes recorded in mesic populations. Study animals in the Kalahari had Minimum Convex Polygon (MCP) home range values of 10.0 ± 8.9 km² SD for adults and 7.1 ± 1.1 km² SD for juveniles, in comparison to the 0.17 – 23.38 km² MCP in Zimbabwe and 1.3 –7.9 km2 MCP in mesic north-eastern South Africa. These results are surprising as arid-zone animals usually have larger home ranges than do their mesic counterparts. It is hypothesised that this discrepancy can be explained by ground pangolins in the Kalahari being on average 25 – 30 % smaller than their mesic counterparts. This smaller body size means that individuals require a smaller home range to meet their dietary requirements, which could be counteracting the trend of arid-zone individuals requiring larger home ranges.
This research also found ground pangolins to be more active during the day in winter and nearly entirely nocturnal during summer. These changes in photoperiodicity are likely driven by adaptations to the extreme climatic conditions present at the study site rather than predation pressure or changes in food resources, although the latter may be playing a role as well. By being diurnal in winter, individuals avoid the extremely cold night-time temperatures, thus saving energy that would otherwise be spent on maintaining their body temperature. By contrast, becoming nocturnal in summer allows them to avoid the extreme daytime temperatures, thus conserving water.
The results of this study reiterate previous findings that ground pangolins are entirely myrmecophagous and highly selective of the species that they eat. Study animals were recorded feeding on only four ant and two termite species, representing 7.5 % and 50 % of the total species richness of each of these families. This is similar to previous research in mesic savannahs where five ant one termite species constituted 97 % of the ground pangolin’s diet. No seasonal differences in prey selection were observed, although the species consumed did depend on the habitats that were available to individual ground pangolins.
This study is the first to investigate the core body temperature (Tb) of a free-ranging pangolin. These data indicated that Tb fluctuated cyclically between 32 – 35 °C and reflected the activity periods of the animal, peaking when the animal was active. When the individual was inactive, Tb steadily decreased, suggesting that it used daily heterothermy to cope with the low food availability in this unpredictable environment.
In summary, ecological parameters between arid and mesic ground pangolin populations are similar in some respects, but divergent in others. Arid-zone populations are smaller overall and show a higher degree of diurnal activity. Despite this smaller body size, home range values appear to be similar between arid and mesic populations. Although the prey species eaten by ground pangolins in the Kalahari differ from prey species in eastern South Africa and Zimbabwe, they belonged to the same genera and were of similar morphology and ecology. The core body temperature results confirm findings from previous captive studies that pangolin body temperatures are lower than those of other eutherian mammals of a similar size. Furthermore, these data indicate that core body temperature is a lot more variable than previously believed, and thus warrants further study. Overall ground pangolin densities in the Kalahari appear to be double those in eastern South Africa and Zimbabwe, although it is unclear whether this is genuine or whether it is an artefact of individuals being easier to locate in the Kalahari. This study also confirmed that electrocutions are probably the greatest threat to this species, and new threats such as accidental capture in gin traps and road mortalities have also come to light.
Pangolins are evolutionarily distinct in that they are the only representatives of an entire mammalian order, the Pholidota. Temminck’s ground pangolin (Smutsia temminckii) is one of the four extant African pangolin species. It is a medium-sized mammal commonly called a scaly anteater and is of the family Manidae. They are considered to be very rare in South Africa and believed to be declining in most parts of their range and this species was recently up-listed to Vulnerable from Least Concerned by the International Union for the Conservation of Nature (ZSL & IUCN, 2014; IUCN, 2015). Pangolins are solitary animals that are revered in most South African communities because of their believed mystical powers and economic values. It is further believed that there is an extremely high demand for the species for traditional medicine purposes throughout southern Africa based on their perceived ability to cure a diverse number of ailments making use of the various pangolin body parts. It is therefore believed that the species is threatened as a result of this exploitation for traditional medicine purposes and other cultural beliefs. However, no studies have been carried out to document the various uses of the animal within tribal communities throughout its range in Africa. The aim of the study is to investigate the uses of the species for traditional, cultural and medicinal purposes and the potential these may have on the prevalence and distribution of this vulnerable species within its known distributional range within South Africa. In conjunction with this, this study aims to estimate the current need for the species within South African tribal communities and to document the associated uses of pangolin body parts to try and quantify this use as a potential threat to the species. Individuals, elders and traditional healers within tribal communities throughout the species known distributional range in South Africa were interviewed, namely in the Sepedi, Zulu, Tsonga, Venda, Tswana, SiSwati and Ndebele tribes. It was found that the use of the animal in the communities rode basically on the belief system of the people. The animals’ scales were the most frequent body part utilised to treat a wide array of ailments. Following this, the blood, fat, bones and meat were often prescribed for a particular disease or an ailment. Not only were pangolin body parts prescribed for medicinal purposes but often prescribed for protection against harm or to ward off evil spirits by either having a scale and/or blood on person or including the fat and/or blood into the building material of houses and livestock pens. In some instances, the meat is also considered a delicacy. In sourcing the animals, communities would either actively hunt pangolins or opportunistically make use of those that are found as road kills. In some cases, large sums of money are offered to source pangolins specifically for traditional medicine. Knowledge about the species was more prevalent among the elderly and generally the species was less well known amongst younger rural people. Nevertheless, the species is still regarded as an important and sought-after organism for traditional medicine in South Africa and, as such, traditional medicine can pose a significant threat to the species population status throughout its distributional range.
Pangolins are medium-sized mammals, characterised by keratinous scales covering their entire body. There are currently eight species of pangolins left in the world with four occurring in
Africa and four in Asia. All species of pangolin are currently considered vulnerable to extinction,
with their numbers rapidly declining due to the excessive demand for pangolin scales from the illegal trade. This trade is often highly organised and lucrative, making it extremely problematic to counteract. These factors contribute to pangolins now being regarded as the most illegally trafficked mammals on Earth. Within the trade, pangolins are often kept in dire conditions and
in cases where they have been recovered, they rarely survive the ordeal. For those that do survive, many assumptions are made when releasing them back into the wild, with only a few cases where actual monitoring has taken place post-release. This study aims to investigate: the demographics of Temmick’s pangolin which has been confiscated from the illicit trade in South Africa, the condition of the animals retrieved, survival between release strategies, and their distribution following release subsequent to veterinary treatment. Study animals were fitted with appropriate
tracking equipment and monitored post-release to monitor movement and survival. Living pangolins confiscated in South Africa increased from 8 in 2016 to, 40 in 2018, but declined to
25 in 2019, with confiscations peaking during the cold and dryer seasons of winter and spring.
Of the pangolins that were successfully confiscated, 63.24% were adult, 14.71% were sub-adult and 22.06% were juveniles. 68% of these pangolins were found in a compromised state. The soft-release approach has become the preferred method of release in South Africa, and current evidence suggest that it has a positive effect on pangolin survival, but more research is still
required. Trade related stress was the main root of mortalities and a great cause for concern. Sex of animal played no significant role in susceptibility to poaching, or in survival. Post release monitoring revealed that released pangolins can travel vast distances, and this needs to be taken into consideration when selecting release sites and tracking equipment. Facilitated release
procedures have proven to be effective in improving survival probability, but improvements can still be made in all aspects of recovery, treatment and release protocols.
Pangolins (Pholidota: Manidae) form an important part of local cultures and traditions in the majority of central and west African countries. The use of whole pangolins or body parts for medicinal purposes in Africa is long-established and they are also hunted as a source of bushmeat across the continent. However, very little is known about the cultural importance of pangolin body parts that are used to treat, alleviate or cure particular ailments and diseases as well as the level of trade for bushmeat purposes in west Africa. In addition, the level of local knowledge relating to pangolins and how it can be integrated with scientific ecological knowledge to contribute to implementation plans and conservation management actions for pangolins in the forests of west Africa has not been determined. The aim of this study was to determine the traditional medicinal importance of pangolins to local communities, pangolin level of trade for bushmeat purposes and local ecological knowledge amongst collectors of pangolins.
Using purposive and snowball sampling for the selection of participants, data were gathered on traditional medicinal use, level of trade for bushmeat purposes as well as level of local ecological knowledge of hunters using semi-structured interviews. Ethnozoological data on the use of pangolins for traditional medicinal purposes were collected from 63 and 48 traditional healers in Sierra Leone and Ghana, respectively. Data were gathered from 153 stakeholders comprising chopbar operators, farmer hunters and wholesalers to determine the level of trade in Ghana. Information on the level of local ecological knowledge of hunters was gathered from 126 and 153 farmer hunters in Sierra Leone and Ghana, respectively.
Ethnozoological data were analysed using use value, cultural importance and informant agreement ratio indices. A total of 21 pangolin parts and tissue oil was found to be used to treat various ailments in Sierra Leone while 13 body parts were used to treat various ailments in Ghana. Pangolin scales were the most culturally important body part according to the rank at which this body part was used in both countries. The results revealed that pangolin body parts play a vital role in the primary healthcare of the people in both countries. A total of 341 pangolins were recorded to have been traded during the study period and, of this number, 98 pangolins were personally observed. Three species of African pangolin are known to occur in both countries. Of these 82% of pangolins traded were white-bellied pangolin (Phataginus tricuspis) while 18% where black-bellied pangolin (Phataginus tetradactyla), with no trade observed for the giant ground pangolin (Smutsia gigantea). Local ecological knowledge of farmer hunters revealed that they were familiar with two of the three African pangolin species that occur in Ghana and Sierra Leone, i.e. the arboreal black-bellied pangolin (P. tetradactyla) and white-bellied pangolin (P. tricuspis) but none reported hunting the giant ground pangolin (S. gigantea).
Although in existence, current legislation has been unable to combat harvesting of pangolins for traditional therapeutic and dietary purposes. The Wildlife Conservation Act in both Ghana and Sierra Leone prohibits any person from hunting or being in possession of pangolins, however, enforcement is lacking. In addition, pangolins are listed in the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species (CITES) as Appendix II and were up-listed as vulnerable on the recently revised International Union for Conservation of Nature Red List. It is highly likely that the unregulated harvesting and poaching of this threatened group of mammals for medicinal purposes and the bushmeat market, is completely unsustainable. A study to determine the population status and ecology of the three species of African pangolins occurring in both countries is urgently required in order to assess the impact of harvesting on the populations which is currently unmonitored and unsustainable. Within this context, there is an urgent need to determine pangolin population abundance within the region, and Africa in general, to ensure their survival.